Overview

English grammar is the way in which meanings are encoded into wordings in the English language. This includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and whole texts. There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. They are the building blocks of the English language.

Nouns

There are various types of nouns including common nouns, proper nouns and gerunds.

Part of Speech Explanation Example
Common Nouns

It is a word that identifies a person, animal, place, thing or idea.


Typically, common nouns refer to single things, groups or containers.

mother, park, pen, friendship.



frog, bunch, loaf.

Proper Nouns

In a sentence, these nouns are specifically named people, places or things and have a capital letter at the beginning.

Peter, London, Great Wall of China

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns may be singular or plural.


Singular countable nouns usually have an article (a, an). Plurals usually end with "s".

cow, cows, bottle, bottles

Uncountable Nouns

They do not have a plural, and are often liquids, powders, or intangible ideas.


To show amounts or degrees, we use "some" in positive sentences, and "not any" or "not much" in negatives

sand, ice-cream, paint, music, homework, money.

Notes

Some nouns may be used as countable or uncountable depending on the situation.
Uncountable Nouns become countable only with the use of "containers", which are countable Nouns.

Example: "A chicken" refers to one chicken, an animal.
 "Chickens" refers to the plural. "Chicken" (with no article) may refer to chicken meat.
For example: "Milk" is uncountable. "A glass" is countable.

Pronouns

These are used in the same way as nouns, and replace them in sentences when a noun is not necessary. There are different kinds of Pronouns for different situations. Examples: it, they, them

Part of Speech Explanation Example
(Personal)
Subject Pronouns

These replace the subject of a sentence when it is too obvious to state.

I, You, He, She, We, They, It



Instead of saying "Sarah has a cat.", we can say "She has a cat." If we know the subject is Sarah.

(Personal)
Object Pronouns

These replace the object of the sentence if it is known.

me, you, him, her, us, them, it


"I like this food," can be changed to "I like it" if we know the object is food.

Possessive Pronouns

These replace the owner of an object if the object is known. In this case the pronoun is not used to replace the noun, but displays ownership of the noun. 

Mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
"The new phone is yours, and the old phone is mine."

Reflexive Pronouns

These are used when the subject and object are the same.

myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourselves, and ourselves.


We don't say "Joe helped Joe." We say "Joe helped himself"

Indefinite Pronouns

We use indefinite pronouns when we are unsure about the subject, or object. 

anyone, someone, somebody, anybody, nobody, something

Demonstrative Pronouns

We use these to "point to" or show a noun when we are talking about it as separate from other nouns.

Singular - This
That

Plural - These, Those

Interrogative Pronouns

Sometimes called “question words” or “wh- words”, these pronouns are used mainly in questions.


They may also replace common phrases.

Who, what, where, when, why, which, whom


How


"I didn't hear what you said"- In this sentence, "what" replaces "the thing"

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are used to introduce clauses that contain more information about a subject or object.

That, which, who, when


"That is the man who helped me."
"Spain, which is in Europe, is a beautiful country."

Verbs

Depending on the verb, it may have a present form, a past form, a past participle, or a present participle. For example, Present- Sing, 

Past- Sang

, Past Participle- Sung, 

Present (continuous) participle- Singing

Part of Speech Explanation Example
Regular Verbs

Regular verbs are the most common and display their past forms by adding –d or –ed.

Liked. Jumped

Irregular Verbs

Their past form CANNOT be made by adding –ed or –d. 

Swam. Ate

Transitive Verbs

A Transitive verb shows an action that must be followed by an object.

Like, have, close


The sentence "l like." is incomplete, because it requires an object.

Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs do not need an object and may only be used with a subject in the sentence. 

When I heard the joke, I laughed.

Auxiliary Verbs

Often called “helping verbs”, auxiliary verbs have no action of their own. They are used with other “action” verbs to create tense, show voice, or display state.

Is, will, could, have,
"I have written a letter" In this sentence ‘have’ has no action but helps form the perfect tense.

The “be” Verb
s

It is an auxiliary verb that falls before another noun, adjective, or complement to define the subject. It may also be used to make complex grammar structures, such as the passive voice, or continuous tense. 

Is, Am, Are, Was, Were


I am a doctor. (No action)


I was seen by a doctor. (Passive)


I am eating banana cake. (Continuous)

Modal Verbs

These have many uses, although they have no ‘action’ of their own. They are used to express need, possibility, willingness, ability or obligation.

Will, can, might, have to

Infinitive Verbs

These always follow "to" or a modal verb.

I like to run.


I was going to dance.

Adjectives

Adjectives are used to describe a Noun or Pronoun and can be used together with Nouns to make Noun Phrases. 

Generally, adjectives come after ‘be verbs’ or before nouns. Opinion- Wonderful, terrible

 Size- big, tiny

 Appearance- shiny, glamorous

 Material- leather, wood

 State- Broken, temporary

 Origin- Mexican, French

 Emotions- glad, depressed

 Numbers- 2, 9000

Part of Speech Explanation Example
Comparatives

Comparative Adjectives usually use ‘-er’ to compare one noun with another, although there are obvious exceptions to this rule.


Some comparatives are made by using “more” or “less” before an adjective that has more than two syllables.

Bigger, Taller, Fatter, Happier

Superlatives

Superlatives show the most or least of an Adjective. Only adjectives of degree can have superlatives.


Superlatives use “the most” or “the least” when the adjective has more than two syllables.

The biggest, the best, the fastest

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive Adjectives are used in a very similar way to possessive pronouns. However, they only replace the owner of the noun when it is known, not the noun itself.


A possessive adjective must be followed by a noun.

My, your, his, her, our, their, its


The bird escaped from its cage

Adverbs

In much the same way as adjectives describe nouns, Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives or sometimes other adverbs. 

They are often formed by adding –ly to an adjective, although there are many adverbs which don’t follow this rule. For example, Happily, quickly, gladly.

Part of Speech Explanation Example
Adverbs of frequency

These are used to show how often a verb occurs.

Sometimes, usually, never

Adverbs of time

These show when a verb occurs

Shortly, soon, after, now

Adverbs of degree

These are used to show a subjective amount in relation to a verb or adjective

Very, much, extremely

Adverbs of place

They show where a verb takes place (without using nouns as reference)

Here, there

Articles

There are four ‘written’ articles with two different types. These are known as ‘indefinite’ and ‘definite’. Articles are not really ‘parts of speech’, but they are crucial to understand.

Part of Speech Explanation Example
Indefinite Articles

Indefinite articles are used when the noun is one of many, and the specific one is not yet important.

‘a’ and ‘an’


"There is an apple tree at my house". (There are many apple trees in the world)

Definite Article

The Definite article is used when we can guess the specific object being talked about or there is only one it could be. 

‘The’


The apples on my tree are delicious.


The Great Wall of China.

Zero article

We use the “zero” article (or no article) when the noun is a proper noun with a capital letter or before the plural form or the uncountable form of an indefinite noun

Ø
 

He drank Ø water

Prepositions

Prepositions are used to show the relationships between people, things and actions by coming before other groups of words to create extra informative phrases.

Part of Speech Explanation Example
Prepositions of place

These are used to create place phrases that give the location of the main clause.

at - shows general place ("I am at the train station")


in - shows containment ("It is in my bag")


on - shows attachment via the surface ("You have a watch on your wrist")


Other examples - beside, in front of, next to

Prepositions of time

These show when an action is occurring in relation to something else.

at - is used for exact times ("The movie starts at 6:00")


in - is used for lengths of time in the future, or is used for months/years/decades ("The movie opens in February")


on - is used for days ("Let’s watch the movieon Saturday night")


Other examples - before, after, while.

Prepositions of movement

Show where objects are moving.

into, over, through, between

Prepositional phrases

By using a preposition in a phrase, we can complete the meanings of intransitive verbs.

"I went" is incorrect


"I went to the shop" is a correct sentence due to the prepositional phrase.

Phrasal Verbs

By adding a preposition to a verb, we make phrasal verbs which take on a completely different meaning to the original verb. 

Take up an instrument.


Take apart a radio.


Take off on a holiday.

Modal Verbs are actually a type of auxiliary verbs that are used to show willingness, possibility, ability, necessity, obligation as well as other subtleties of the English language.

Part of Speech Explanation Example
Can

Can shows ability, possibility, informed permission, informal request, or impossibility (in the negative). It is possibly the most commonly used modal verb.

I can swim.




Can you close the window?


I can’t talk right now. I cannot talk right now.

Could

Could is often used as the past, or more formal version of can. It shows past ability, polite request, suggestion, or impossibility (in the negative).

I could swim when I was younger.


Could you help me?


You could try calling.


I couldn’t see anything.

May

Used as a polite request, asking for permission, or to show uncertainty.

May I talk to you? May I talk with you?


You may go now.


I may go to the party later if I have time.

Might

Used to show uncertainty about the past present or future, and very polite questions.

I might go to the big party with you.

Should

Should is most commonly used to show advice, suggestion, or display the natural order of things.

You should go to the hospital.


We should book a table.


The students should know the address.

Ought to

Advice, Suggestion (strong).

You ought to go to the hospital.

We ought to try the other key.

Had Better

Advice, with a threat of negative reaction/result.

You had better pay your speeding tickets.

Be Supposed to

This shows the speaker’s expectations, or the natural order of things. (Note: the ‘be’ verb changes according to tense)

You are supposed to call me if there is a problem.


It wasn’t supposed to rain today.

Must

Shows strong obligation/ prohibition (if used in the negative). In spoken English, it is used to show personal obligation or intrinsic value. In written English, it is used to show necessity.

I must go to the bank this afternoon.


You mustn’t use your dictionary.


Children must be accompanied by an adult.

Have to

Necessity, or lack of necessity (in the negative). In the positive, ‘must’ and ‘have to’ are very similar, but in the negative, they have very different uses.

I have to work today. I don’t have to clean my room.

Will

Future tense, used to describe events that have been decided at the time of utterance.

Will you marry me?


I will answer the phone.

Be Going to

Future tense, used to show plans for the future that were decided on in the past. The ‘be’ verb changes according to tense.

I am going to travel abroad next year.
We’re going to take a swim when I finish work.

Would

Would is often used as the past, or more polite form of will.  It is used in polite requests, preferences, and a repeated action in the past that is no longer performed.

Would you close the window?


I would like a small dog.


When I was young, I would watch cartoons every week.

Used to

Shows a repeated behaviour in the past that is no longer continued.  In the negative and question form it loses the "d".

When I was a policeman, I used to drive police cars.


Did you use to stay up late when you were young?

Shall

Not very commonly used. We use it for volunteering a future action, or formally expressing certainty.

Shall we go to the shop?


You shall be king.

Other types of words

None

Part of Speech Explanation Example
Conjunctions

Conjunctions are used to join parts of speech within a sentence (generally, a main clause to a supporting clause).

and, or, but, so, because


"I like tea but I don´t like coffee because it´s too strong for me."

Interjections

Interjections are words to express immediate feelings, or surprise. They are usually written alone in sentences.

Boo! Ow! Phew!

Simple Tenses

None

The Simple Present

The most basic tense in English is the Simple Present. It expresses an action that happens regularly or always. The verb should remain in its base form, allowing for voice.



Formula: Subject + (Present) Verb + (object)

Timeline(The action can occur at any time):

None

I eat cake. She eats cake.


In the negative, we use the auxiliary verb do(es) + not.

I don’t eat cake. She doesn’t eat cake.


In questions (the interrogative form), the auxiliary verb comes before the subject.
Do you eat cake?

When does she eat cake?

The Simple Past

The simple past is used to explain about an action completed in the past.

Formula: Subject + (Past) Verb + (object)


Timeline(The action was completed before now):

None

I saw a big explosion.

I drank a bottle of soda this morning.

In the simple past negative, "don’t" and "doesn’t" become "didn’t"
I didn’t think about that.

The Simple Future

To talk about the future, we may use the modal verb “will” when discussing future events that are only decided upon at the time of speaking and predictions.
We use “(Be) going to” to talk about future events that have been planned and predictions with much more certainty.

Formula - Subject + will + Infinitive Verb + (object) 

Subject + "Be" Verb + going to + Infinitive Verb+ (object)


Timeline:

None

"Will you marry me? Yes, I will."
When a phone is ringing, we say "I’ll get it.”"
When I ask your plans for the weekend, you say "We are going to have a picnic."

Continuous Tenses

In some English books, you will hear reference to the Continuous Tense, or Progressive Tense. These are exactly the same thing. These tenses are formed by using the “-ing” form of the verb.

Present Continuous

There are two uses of the Present Progressive.
Formula - Subject + "Be" Verb + Verb-ing form + (object)
Type 1: The most common is a continuous action which coincides with the time of speaking.
Type 2: We also use it to talk about actions or events which are certain in the future. We should include a time phrase to show this aspect.

Timeline:

None

Type 1: I am learning English now.
Type 2: I can’t go to the party. I am working on Friday. She’s going to New York in two weeks.

Past Continuous

It is used to talk about an action that was in progress in the past. It is usually in a sentence with a time phrase (or complement) to show the two actions occurring at the same time.
Formula - Subject + (past) “Be” Verb (was/were) + Verb-ing form + (object)

Timeline:

None

I was having a shower when my phone rang.

It wasn’t raining while we were swimming.

Future Continuous

The Future Progressive is most commonly used to talk about a long slow action decided for a time in the future and should be used with a time phrase.
Formula - Subject + will be + Verb-ing form + (object)

Timeline:

None

We will be having steak for dinner.

I won’t be calling you for a week.

Perfect Tenses

None

Present Perfect

When using Present Perfect Tense, we’re referring to past actions that have some result or consequence now, We often use it to talk about special life events where the time is not important or events that occurred in the immediate past.

Formula - Subject + have/has + Verb (Past Participle) + (object)

Timeline:

None

They have grown apples for years.
I haven’t seen the movie since 1999.
I have been bungee jumping.
We have gotten lost.


Past Perfect

We use the Past Perfect to explain an action completed before now. It shows us that one event happened before another in the past. In a Past Perfect sentence, there is usually a main clause (in the Past Perfect) and another clause in the past. It can be referred to as "The past of the past".

Formula - Subject + had + Verb (Past Participle) + (object)

Timeline:

None

Jenny had slept well, so she felt good.
Bob had read the book before he went to the movie.
The movie had started right before we arrived.

Future Perfect

The Future Perfect is the tense we use to refer to future events as if they are already completed. We picture ourselves after the event looking back at it. We use "by" and a time as our second event, or time of perspective.

Formula - Subject + will have + Verb (Past Participle)

Timeline:

None

She will have been shopping for hours by then.
I won’t have finished my work before you get home.
Will you have paid the bills by the due date?

Perfect Continuous Tenses

There are also combination tenses that rely on a mixture of both grammar structures. 

Present Perfect Continuous

The Present Perfect Progressive is used to talk about an action that was begun in the past and recently completed. Another use of the Present Perfect Progressive to express an action that was begun in the past and is still continuing now. There should be some evident result now.

Formula- Subject + have/has + been + Verb–ing + (object)

Timeline:

None

She has been cooking your dinner for hours.
We haven’t been waiting very long.

Past Perfect Continuous

Use the Past Perfect Progressive Tense to focus on an action which was continuing up to or almost until a point in the past, not necessarily a completed event.

Formula - Subject + had + been + Verb-ing form + (object)

Timeline:

None

I had been trying to call you.
They hadn’t been waiting long.

Future Perfect Continuous

This is a very uncommon tense, but still grammatically correct. Actions in the Future Perfect Progressive are long, slow actions that we predict to be occurring in a time between now and another future time. Key Time expressions – by, after
Formula - Subject + will have + been + Verb–ing form.

None

Sarah will have been working here for 2 years by September.
I won’t have been spending my money.

Conditional Clauses

In a conditional sentence there is usually a main clause and a conditional clause. The conditional clause is identified by words such as "if" or "unless". The type of conditional clause that is produced will depend greatly on the tenses used in the two clauses. 

Here we will cover the 4 conditional types, plus the mixed conditional.

# Explanation Example
Zero Conditional

Cause and Effect (always true/fact)
Formula: 'If' clause + present simple, present simple

If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.

1st Conditional

Cause and Effect (true in the present/future)

Formula: ‘If' clause + present simple + simple future

If I keep studying, my English will improve.

2nd Conditional

Hypothetical (untrue in the present)

Formula: ‘If' clause + simple past, "would", "should", "could" + Infinitive Verb

If I had a million dollars, I would buy you a house.

3rd Conditional

Hypothetical (untrue in the past/regret)
Formula: ‘If clause’ + past perfect, ‘would have’ + Verb Past Participle

If I had listened to my teacher, I would have understood the test.

2nd and 3rd Mixed Conditional

2nd and 3rd conditionals may sometimes be mixed to show situations where something that is hypothetical in the past would have different consequences. 

If I hadn’t stolen the money, the police wouldn’t be looking for me.
If I had a dog, I would have trained him to do tricks.

The active voice vs the passive

Sentences may also be presented in either the active or passive voice.

# Explanation Example
The Active Voice

In the active voice, which is most common, the subject is the agent, and the performer of the action.

A thief stole my bike.
An accident damaged the car.
A hammer hit me.


The Passive Voice

In the passive voice, we use a 'be' verb before the main verb (in its past participle form) to show that the subject is not the agent (not the performer of the action).
In a passive sentence, we also use prepositions to show the relationship with the agent/instrument. In natural English we use the passive to show no guilt, or when the agent is not known, or unimportant.

My bike was stolen (by a thief).
The car was damaged (in an accident).
I was hit (with a hammer).

-ing form, Infinitive and Past Participle

Compare -ing form, Infinitive and Past Participle of a word.

# Explanation Example
-ing Form

1. The "-ing" form is used in continuous tenses with auxiliary verbs (helping verbs). These are in active voice.
2. The "-ing" form can function as a noun. These nouns are called gerunds. They can be the direct object of certain verbs.(Suggest, admit, deny etc.)
3. The "-ing" form is used after a preposition. 4. Adjectives are sometimes formed using "-ing".
5.The "-ing" form is sometimes used to include additional information in a sentence in a reduced relative clause.

1. I was writing when the pizza arrived.
2. Hiking is one of my favorite activities.
He often avoids answering his phone.
3. Before conducting the research, it is necessary to complete a literature review.
4.I read an interesting book.
The barking dog was annoying. 5.The woman wearing a dress is sitting by the window. (The woman who is wearing a dress is sitting by the window.)

Infinitives

1.The infinitive is required after certain verbs in English.(Want, plan, manage etc. )
2. The infinitive is also used after certain verb + direct object structures. (Advise, allow, ask)
3. Infinitives are used after certain adjectives.(Difficult, impossible, wrong etc.)
4. Infinitives are used to express purpose (in order to do something).

1. I decided to go to a movie.
2. I encouraged the participants to ask questions. ("Participants" is the direct object here.)
3.It was difficult to complete the rough draft.
4.She is driving quickly (in order) to arrive on time.

Past Participles

1. The past participle is used in perfect tenses.
2.The past participle is used after "be" auxiliaries in passive voice.
3.The past participle is sometimes used in a phrase to supply additional information. These participial phrases come from relative clauses with a passive meaning
4.The past participle is sometimes used as an adjective.

1. I have finished my work.
2.I was born in 1976.
3.The drinks served at that bar are delicious. (The drinks that are served at that bar are delicious.)
4. She tried to repair her broken phone.

Notes

1. Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive and the meaning of the sentence does not really change.
2.some other verbs that can be followed by either a gerund or infinitive, the choice of the gerund or infinitive creates a difference in meaning.
3. Sometimes both the "-ing" and the past participle ("-ed") forms can function as adjectives. However, each form has a different meaning. Notice that the "-ing" adjective refers to a thing and the past participle ("-ed") adjective refers to a person.

1.She likes to read. She likes reading.
2.I stopped smoking. (I no longer smoke.) I stopped to smoke. (I stopped someplace along the way to smoke.)
3. He is boring. ("He" makes other people unhappy.) He is bored. ("He" is unhappy.)